Littoral zones are not merely boundaries between land and water; they are dynamic bridges and buffers, fundamentally shaped by shifting environmental forces. The intangible cultural heritage embedded within these coastal zones (encompassing generational practices of resilience, navigation, and ecological adaptation) is highly vulnerable to loss. Current information systems are poorly equipped to safeguard these living practices. Historically grounded in "urban ontologies," digital architectures inherently favour stability, permanent landmarks, and predictable spatial control. This paper presents a gap analysis examining how existing information systems, from geo-spatial hypermedia to immersive media, fail to capture the fluid, cyclical, and seasonally contingent nature of littoral heritage. By contrasting the performative, ultra-local realities of the coast against the static nature of traditional archives, we outline the structural limitations of current digitisation efforts. Finally, we propose conceptual foundations for future interactive architectures capable of supporting the active transmission, continuous evolution, and structural fluidity required to truly preserve littoral knowledge.

Littoral zones are liminal environments that exist between (and blur the boundaries of) land and water. These spaces are productive of unique and multidirectional flows - migratory, economic, social - that allow for mapping both diachronically and spatially. It is therefore plausible to consider human interaction with (and within) this environment as a plurality of intersecting and interlocking networks - rendering them an ideal case study for the application of hypertext as a method.

Westerdahl's concept of the maritime cultural landscape is particularly relevant here. Rather than treating coastal environments as collections of discrete sites, he defines the maritime cultural landscape as the totality of human utilisation of maritime space through interconnected activities including settlement, fishing, navigation and shipping [17].

Consider the quayside. Locative hypertext might map the spatial movement of actors across time; an urban geographer might map how tourists, workers, residents and others interact within this space; an economist might map the proprietorship of surrounding homes and businesses, building up a sense of how concentrated ownership affects the local community; maritime scientists might track the movement of fishing vessels alongside the movement of shoals, serving as a map of stock and concentrations of fish.

These tangible networks interact with intangible ones: storytelling, craftsmanship, and social practices such as folk traditions, festivals. While the former lend themselves to capture with existing technologies and methods, the latter (bracketed under the title of Intangible Cultural Heritage) are more resistant to capture. ICH has an “invaluable role … in bringing human beings closer together and ensuring exchange and understanding among them”[15], making capture and preservation an important aspect of safeguarding these traditions. Consider the annual Polperro Festival (Cornwall, UK), in which a "mayor" is elected. Dating back well over a century, this tradition involves the mayor (dressed in a customised costume) drinking in every pub in the village, ultimately judging a makeshift raft competition before being thrown into the sea. Pilots of these rafts are also doused in flour.

The reasoning for all this exists piecemeal, as folk memory amongst the residents of the town. It is quite different to the sposalizio del mare [marriage to the sea] ritual, where the ruler of the Republic of Venice, the Doge, performed a symbolic marriage with the sea [6]. A central part of the local calendar and binding community event, every aspect is nonetheless resistant to capturing with the more traditional tools of cultural heritage. As a series of interlocking networks, however, this activity becomes legible both to the research community and a lay audience - particularly if represented with the help of spatial hypertext.

Littoral zones bridge territories and communities, whilst also acting as buffers separating distinct people and interests. They have existed as sites of economic boom and profound hardship, alongside being a locus for migration and demographic change; they are producers of unique craft practices deeply connected with the environment and embodied in ways that defy traditional methods of capture; they are sites of profound physical change reflecting the climate crisis and collapsing biodiversity. This paper provides an initial mapping of how changes to littoral zones shape how communities perceive and inhabit physical space, making the case for their exploration through hypertext as method [5].

Littoral zones are examined here not only as a specific environmental and cultural domain but also as an exemplary case of dynamic socio-ecological systems. Their shifting boundaries, overlapping jurisdictions, layered histories, and distributed forms of knowledge make visible problems that frequently remain hidden in more stable environments. These spaces are both peripheral and central, remote and connected. While this paper focuses primarily on communities in coastal settings, many of the challenges identified (particularly those concerning knowledge transmission) also apply to other dynamic environments: urban, rural, infrastructural. Littoral zones therefore provide a valuable analytical lens through which broader questions concerning information architectures and knowledge organisation may be explored.

Coastal heritage consists of practices connecting communities to their shifting surroundings. This heritage is deeply embedded in lived experience and interactions with the environment, bringing to the fore a characterising paradox of littoral communities: ultra-locality combined with frequent exposure to transient or exogenous groups. Illustrations of this coastal-specific heritage include intergenerational transmission of knowledge on how to adapt and thrive in an ever-changing environment with its own seasonal rhythms; the Swinomish Indian Tribal Community, for example, constructs intertidal rock walls called clam gardens that flatten the beach slope to trap sediment and naturally dissipate wave energy, simultaneously preventing coastal erosion and creating a thriving habitat for harvesting food. Consider also the limiting or shaping the genres of music (such as Morna in Cabo Verde) that are performed and experienced in littoral areas rather than in inland areas.

In general terms, this form of heritage is at a special risk of being lost. Tourism elevates some aspects of traditional practice while discouraging others; younger people often abandon their historical community in favour of greater opportunity elsewhere. A 2026 European Commission report found that since 2010, coastal municipalities have seen their youth population collapse by 6.4%, with total working-age population shrinking by 5.4% as nearby inland municipalities experienced working-age growth of 1.3%. Concurrently, the coastal population over the age of 80 jumped 38.3% - a pattern replicated in many European communities. The resulting loss of practices and culture affects the remaining population's resilience to environmental change, but also their future ability to tap into the complex folk knowledge that shapes identity.

Safeguarding this volatile heritage is a multifaceted challenge that highlights flaws in existing practice. It is clear that current information systems have severe limits when applied to coastal environments, for example. Historically, the underlying ontologies and architectures of these systems were informed by urban models, designed to capture densely populated environments in which human activity exerts control and thrives on predictability. This urban bias drove the evolution of digital media to favour capturing static entities. For instance, systems are naturally designed to index permanent monuments, map fixed marketplaces, and plot stable roads. This is a known problem: early navigational aids attempted to map routes and movement rather than geographical features. Examples include Roman cartography, such as the Tabula Peutingeriana [14], or medieval ones, such as portolans and rutters. Portolans indeed can be conceptualised as attempts to transmit the intangible cultural heritage of navigators and their knowledge of routes through written media rather than word of mouth.

Coastal environments evidently present a literal and metaphorical instability that resists such static measures. Littoral zones are characterised by environmental volatility and a living pool of diversity; traditional efforts fail where they seek to "freeze" dynamic heritage into static archives.

2.1 Littoral Zones in Heritage & Cultural Production

Researchers struggle to define the term intangible cultural heritage (ICH), even with UNESCO's interventions into the discourse. Existing disciplines broadly converge on knowledge, practices, social organisation, beliefs, and the land/sea interactions that structure coastal life as key features to capture. These elements are not discrete, being interwoven with each other and through complex embodied practice situated within specific environmental and social contexts. Rather than existing principally as codified knowledge, it emerges through complex practices within specific ecological and social contexts.

Hypertext offers a particularly powerful method for exploring this work because its structure aligns closely with the ways knowledge operates within littoral societies. In their 2019 paper Hypertext as Method [4], Atzenbeck and Nurnberg frame hypertext not simply as a system of links but as a “method of inquiry, a way of viewing arbitrary systems” - one that foregrounds relations, perspectives, patterns of association. This understanding becomes especially relevant in maritime contexts, where knowledge emerges through connections and interactions rather than fixed sequences or stable categories.

As Atzenbeck and Nurnberg emphasise, hypertext is concerned with “associating information explicitly,” which makes visible the relationships that underpin meaning. Maritime ICH is organised along similar lines: knowledge of navigation develops through connections between wind patterns, seasonal rhythms, currents, and lived experience; fishing practices draw together a matrix of knowledge around ecology, ritual observance, exchange relationships, craft practices and so on. These relationships are further shaped by seasonal cycles and environmental contingencies. Decisions about when, where, and how to fish are not fixed but depend on shifting conditions such as weather patterns, migratory behaviours, and tidal rhythms. Knowledge, in this sense, is both cumulative and responsive, embedded in practice yet continually recalibrated in relation to change. In Pearson's foundational account of littoral society, the author stresses that coastal life is defined by interaction, describing it as land influenced by the sea rather than as a separate domain. Hypertext supports the representation of such interdependencies through structures that can hold multiple relationships simultaneously, rather than arranging them into a linear or hierarchical structure.

A simple example illustrates the practical significance of hypertext in a littoral context. Consider traditional small-scale fishing within a coastal community. A conventional archive might record key data points as separate collections: vessel specifications, catch records, oral histories, photographs, weather data A hypertextual system could instead represent these materials as a network of interconnected nodes and relationships. A user entering through a fishing-ground node might navigate to seasonal weather patterns, local ecological indicators, family traditions of navigation, boat-building practices, locations of fish processing, festival celebrations associated with the fishing season, and oral testimony from fishers. Multiple pathways would coexist without requiring a single hierarchical structure.Such a model would allow users to move between environmental, cultural, economic, and historical dimensions of the same practice. More importantly, the significance of any individual item would emerge through its relationships to other elements within the network. Hypertext does not simply store information about littoral heritage; it provides a means of representing the relational structures through which such heritage acquires meaning.

This relational capacity reflects the way people think and act within maritime environments. Atzenbeck and Nurnberg's paper notes that human cognition includes associative processes that move across connections rather than adhering to hierarchical structures. Such connections are also temporal and contingent. Maritime knowledge often takes this form: judgement at sea involves linking past experience of weather, place, and risk with present conditions and expectations; oral traditions connect locations, events, and meanings through memory rather than sequence. This mode of knowing often depends on coordinating stable landmarks with ephemeral cues. Coastal navigation, for instance, may involve reading enduring features such as headlands or harbour structures alongside transient elements such as currents, light conditions, or wind shifts. The interplay between what persists and what changes requires a flexible, associative understanding of space that hypertext is well-suited to represent. Hypertext accommodates this mode of knowing by enabling multiple points of entry and diverse, flexible pathways through information. Such flexibility allows knowledge to be explored in ways that remain closer to how it is used in practice. In particular, spatial hypertext allows for the coherent representational grammar of proximities and distances, including relationships between fixed points and shifting phenomena. This is particularly important in maritime contexts, where spatial understanding depends on navigating between stable reference points and ephemeral environmental conditions.

Structure, in a hypertextual approach, varies according to user perspective and activity orientation. Pearson's foundational 1985 discussion of littoral society presents a parallel situation[12]; he argues that there is no clear boundary that defines who belongs to a coastal society. Instead, there exists a continuum of engagement with the sea, within which different groups relate to maritime space in distinct ways. People living in the same coastal setting may experience the sea as central, peripheral, or incidental to their lives. These differing relationships are grounded in distinct forms of embedded practice, shaped by occupation, tradition, and degrees of dependence on maritime activity. As a result, knowledge of the sea is unevenly distributed and differently configured across social groups. Hypertext enables these differences to be represented without collapsing them into a single viewpoint. Multiple trajectories through the same material allow the coexistence of different interpretations and emphases.

The notion of a continuum between land and sea also bears directly on the suitability of hypertext. Pearson describes littoral society as occupying zone without a clear line of demarcation, a continuum in which maritime influence gradually diminishes inland. This presents a challenge for forms of documentation that depend on categorical separation. Hypertext makes it possible to trace connections across domains without forcing them into discrete units, since links can connect ecological, economic, cultural, and spatial dimensions within a shared framework. This capacity supports a representation of the littoral as an area of interaction and mediation, consistent with Pearson's account of it as a porous frontier.

Open-endedness further strengthens the case for hypertext. Atzenbeck and Nurnberg's paper identifies the absence of closure as a defining feature, noting that it may be impossible to circumscribe all relevant structure for a given body of information; Pearson's work points to a similar openness when he describes the flexible and shifting boundaries of littoral society. Maritime intangible cultural heritage evolves through time, responding to environmental change, economic pressures, and social transformation. Seasonal variation and the inherent unpredictability of marine environments further contribute to this dynamism. Maritime practices must continually adapt to conditions that cannot be fully stabilised or predicted, reinforcing the need for a representational framework that remains flexible and incomplete. Hypertext provides a framework that allows ongoing expansion, with new material added and relationships revised. This is particularly important in representing living forms of knowledge that cannot be fully stabilised.

Hypertext as Method positions hypertext as a medium for thinking and communication, linked to the augmentation of human intellectual capability. This adds a methodological dimension beyond representation. Exploring maritime intangible cultural heritage often involves tracing connections across disparate elements and recognising patterns that cut across domains. Hypertext supports this process by enabling users to follow links, compare materials, and construct their own pathways through the information. Such exploration supports understanding in a way that aligns with the complexity of littoral systems.

These features suggest that hypertext corresponds to the structure of maritime intangible cultural heritage, at least to a sufficient degree to warrant a more coherent mapping. Littoral societies are shaped by relationships between land and sea, by variations in perspective, and by processes that remain open to change. Hypertext provides a means of engaging with these characteristics through a framework that can represent connections, accommodate different viewpoints, and support ongoing development. It therefore serves as an appropriate method for examining maritime ICH as a system of interrelated practices and meanings.

Locative and spatial hypertext provide particularly promising approaches for littoral environments; each have already explored the idea of the spatial or geographic. Coastal practices are often inseparable from movement through specific places, routes, and environmental conditions. Walking a shoreline, navigating an estuary, following tidal access routes, or moving between harbour and settlement all involve spatially embedded knowledge. Locative hypertext systems can attach narratives, memories, ecological observations, and cultural practices directly to geographical locations while simultaneously preserving connections among them. Such approaches allow users to encounter coastal heritage through situated exploration rather than through static description, bringing representational form closer to lived experience.

J.R. Carpenter's Writing Coastlines [7] provides a succinct illustration of these dynamics. The work presents the coastline as a relational and processual space, where knowledge remains embedded in lived interactions between land, sea, and text. Its structure reflects the influence of seasonal rhythms and environmental contingencies, with meaning emerging through changing conditions rather than fixed sequences. At the same time, the interplay between ephemeral elements and more stable points of reference shapes how the reader navigates the work, echoing the coordination of transient cues and enduring landmarks in maritime practice. In this way, Writing Coastlines demonstrates how hypertext can operate according to the same embedded, contingent, and relational logics that structure maritime intangible cultural heritage and make it an excellent candidate for interrogation through hypertext.

To clarify the limitations of existing approaches, the following discussion evaluates current technologies according to a common question: what aspects of littoral heritage can they successfully represent, and what aspects remain difficult or impossible to capture? The objective is not to dismiss these systems, many of which perform their intended functions extremely well, but rather to identify structural gaps between existing information architectures and the characteristics of coastal intangible cultural heritage.

As we have established, littoral zones represent a compelling candidate for interrogation through hypertext as method. To properly interrogate this gap, however, it is necessary to map current interventions which allow for this ICH to be captured and where we currently lack either a grammar or a solution to this problem.

Geo-Spatial Information Systems (GIS) and Web Maps. Those classes of systems bridge the gap between abstract coordinate spaces, information representation, exploration and analysis. These systems still largely depend on a static baseline map layer, with a few attempts to provide a form of historical layering that offers time-based exploration of static snapshots of geographical representations. Those systems overwhelmingly favour a narrow approach to information capturing and presentation around the concept of points of interest, failing to incorporate well-known interscalar relationships and conceptual structures that are the core of classic cartography [1].

Notable adaptations of maps and GIS include systems for narrative that support the organisation of information around journey-like narrative logics. An example is the Pelagios project, developed to support the study of travel literature and the reconstruction of historic journeys [16]. However, a significant limitation is the inability to represent relationships across multiple perspectives. This is not strictly related to their representation in terms of information structures, but rather to providing interactive interfaces that are neither overwhelming nor overwhelmed by the sheer quantity of presented information.

An open challenge concerns the ability to enrich places that do not have a name or specific identity [2], such as natural features and spots emerging from the specific topology of an area. While contemporary GIS platforms increasingly support temporal layers, historical visualisation, and dynamic environmental modelling, they continue to focus primarily on representing changing states rather than the cultural and experiential processes through which coastal knowledge is produced and transmitted.

Temporal Databases and Versioning Systems. Temporal formalisms model the different ontological dimensions of information, from digital acquisition (a.k.a. transaction time) and the lifecycle of entities (a.k.a. validity time). Those formalisms capture the temporal relationships between entities, such as Allen's Interval Algebra defining the 11 temporal configurations between two entities. Descriptive approaches like the iCall standard schema are a powerful way to capture events, recurrences, and exceptions, but they are not meant to be used to integrate, reconstruct and infer relationships among entities. Implementations in temporal commercial databases are focused on indexing and retrieval (query-based processing). From a programmatic, operational standpoint, the standards are CRON, scalable and tractable regular expressions used to schedule system jobs. Given their specialised application and use of REGEX, CRON impose severe limitations on the ability to express context-specific irregular recurrences, typical of human activities [3].

Knowledge Graphs. Digital twin technology has been increasingly applied to model and manage structures and infrastructure systems, whose complexity is accommodated by knowledge graph structures. In this regard, the majority of published work and resources derive from a focus on coastal line ecosystems for the benefit of environmental studies [9]. ISLKG provides a perspective on island-specific shoreline knowledge representations from the perspective of marine studies [10]. The intersection of littoral heritage and knowledge graphs is genuinely niche: while models like MarineTLO directly address how to represent coastal and pelagic ecological knowledge in a graph structure, what exists in the way of actual marine heritage concentrates on knowledge representation of coastal archaeological excavations.

Personal tracking systems, Smart Sensing and Beacons. Those types of systems embed data capturing into the environment, allowing for different forms of ubiquitous computing. Personal tracking devices, such as wearables or smartphone tracking apps, focus on personal behaviour but also allow for the passive creation of crowdsourced mappings. Smart environments can be achieved through a combination of sensor technologies from dumb and blind pressure or movement sensors or electric plugs to intelligent vision capable of recognising objects, vehicles or individuals. Lastly, a worth highlighting technology makes use of Bluetooth beacons or QR codes to provide localised information in place. The most significant gap in both approaches is about activity recognition, i.e., in the ability to interconnect the captured observations into a broader articulation of actions that could, hence, be connected to local practices.

Immersive Media. Platforms leveraging 3D and/or 360-degree capture offer unparalleled sensory documentation that can be re-lived through Virtual Reality systems. This technology excels at recording the spatial and acoustic reality of living practices from an individual point of view, allowing for an interesting yet limited exploration around the context of the recorded event. For instance, panoramic video can give the experience of navigating a complex riverine estuary, preserving the exact environmental cues and bodily movements required for the task. These solutions, however, close users in a high-fidelity diorama, frozen and isolated.

Maritime Information Systems and Electronic Chart Displays. Industrial systems like Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems handle live telemetry, dynamic water depths, tidal streams, and automated radar plotting. These platforms are heavily optimised for modern commercial navigation and risk avoidance. Their primary objective is navigational safety and operational decision-making rather than the representation of cultural meaning, historical memory, or locally embedded knowledge. As a result, many dimensions of littoral heritage remain outside their representational scope despite their sophisticated treatment of environmental dynamics.

Viewed collectively, these systems demonstrate a recurring pattern: they typically excel at representing location, events, objects, and measurable environmental conditions, yet struggle to represent evolving relationships, situated knowledge, multiple perspectives, embodied practice, and ongoing cultural transmission.

The central argument of this paper has been that littoral heritage is fundamentally relational, contingent, and continuously evolving. Hypertext offers an especially useful framework because it provides a means of representing systems whose coherence emerges through relationships rather than through fixed categories or stable hierarchies. The technologies discussed in the preceding section can each capture important aspects of littoral environments, yet none fully support the relational and adaptive qualities required for the long-term transmission of coastal knowledge.

There is a fundamental gap between how littoral environments operate and how existing information systems represent them. Current approaches privilege static representations of space and linear models of time, whereas coastal ecosystems and the practices they sustain unfold across multi-scalar temporalities and relational spatialities. For example, ecological signals—such as interspecies communication through chemical exchange in plant and marine systems—emerge over temporal horizons far exceeding typical human perceptual and communicative scales. This creates a persistent misalignment between human-centred information architectures and the underlying rhythms of the natural environment.

An important future opportunity lies in combining hypertextual principles with emerging technologies such as Digital Twins and AI-assisted interpretive systems. Digital Twins provide dynamic representations of changing environments, while AI systems may assist in identifying patterns, relationships, and temporal dynamics that remain difficult for users to perceive directly. Considered independently, however, neither technology resolves the representational challenges identified in this paper.Their greatest potential emerges when understood as components within a broader hypertextual architecture. In such a configuration, Digital Twins could provide continuously evolving representations of littoral systems, while AI tools might support interpretation and navigation through complex networks of environmental, cultural, and historical information. Hypertext would function as the organising logic connecting these diverse forms of knowledge.The challenge is therefore not simply to digitise coastal heritage but to develop information architectures capable of accommodating contingency, plurality, adaptation, and change. Littoral environments provide a particularly powerful test case for this endeavour because they expose the limitations of static information systems while highlighting the value of relational approaches to knowledge representation. In this respect, hypertext remains not merely a technology but a method for understanding and engaging with dynamic environments.

ACM full-text HTML

ACM Digital Library

Imported from ACM’s structured HTML source. ACM Reference Format: Alessandro Adamou, Alessio Antonini, Francesca Benatti, Sally Blackburn-Daniels, Sam Brooker, John Domingue, Derek Matravers, Carlo Teo Pedretti, and Davide Picca. 2026. Hypertextuality of Littorals: a Gap Analysis. In 37th ACM Conference on Hypertext (HT '26), September 14--18, 2026, London, United Kingdom. ACM, New York, NY, USA 6 Pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3800935.3830884

[1] Alessio Antonini, Guido Boella, Stefania Buccoliero, Lucia Lupi, and Claudio Schifanella. 2017. Foundations of Map-based Web Applications. In Proceedings of the 12th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications (VISIGRAPP 2017). 92–99.

[2] Alessio Antonini, Guido Boella, Stefania Buccoliero, Lucia Lupi, and Claudio Schifanella. 2017. Topology-aware indexing system for urban knowledge. In 2017 Computing Conference. IEEE, 1003–1010.

[3] Alessio Antonini, Lucia Lupi, Guido Boella, Claudio Schifanella, 2017. Time and timing in the city: how to represent dynamic urban entities in a map-based platform. In CUPUM 2017 (Computers in Urban Planning and Urban Management): USB Conference Proceedings. University of South Australia.

[4] Claus Atzenbeck and Peter J Nürnberg. 2019. Hypertext as method. In Proceedings of the 30th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media. 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1145/3342220.3343669

[5] Claus Atzenbeck and Peter J. Nürnberg. 2019. Hypertext as Method. In Proceedings of the 30th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media: Tear Down The Wall (Hof, Germany) (HT ’19). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1145/3342220.3343669

[6] Marina Bertoncin et al. 1997. Dallo'Sposalizio del mare'al baratto con la terra: Venezia e il Delta. NOTIZIARIO. CENTRO ITALIANO PER GLI STUDI STORICO-GEOGRAFICI 2, anno 5 (1997), 6–13.

[7] Jessica Carpenter. 2014. Writing Coastlines : Locating Narrative Resonance in Transatlantic Communications Networks.Ph. D. Dissertation. University of the Arts Londond. https://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/id/eprint/7825/1/Carpenter-PhD-thesis-2015.pdf Submitted.

[8] Jon Fosse. 2000. Morgon og kveld. Det Norske Samlaget, Oslo.

[9] Sucharita Gopal, Dhruv Toshniwal, Ethan Deyle, Joshua Pitts, et al. 2024. Comparative Analysis of Generative Pre-Trained Transformers Responses to Coastal Ecosystem Questions: Implications for GenAI in Environmental Education. (2024).

[10] Qi He, Chenyang Yu, Wei Song, Xiaoyi Jiang, Lili Song, and Jian Wang. 2023. ISLKG: The Construction of island knowledge graph and knowledge reasoning. Sustainability 15, 17 (2023), 13189.

[11] Giovanni Orlandi, Rossana E Guglielmetti, et al. 2017. Navigatio Sancti Brendani. Vol. 114. SISMEL Edizioni del Galluzzo.

[12] M. N. Pearson. 1985. Littoral Society: The Case for the Coast. The Great Circle 7, 1 (1985), 1–8. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41562495 Accessed: 2026-05-29.

[13] Frode Skarstein. 2006. Erik the Red's Land: the land that never was. Polar Research 25, 2 (2006), 173–179.

[14] Richard JA Talbert. 2010. Rome's world: the Peutinger map reconsidered. Cambridge University Press.

[15] UNESCO. 2003. Text of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention Accessed: 2026-05-29.

[16] Valeria Vitale, Pau de Soto, Rainer Simon, Elton Barker, Leif Isaksen, and Rebecca Kahn. 2021. Pelagios–Connecting histories of place. Part I: Methods and tools. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 15, 1-2 (2021), 5–32.

[17] Christer Westerdahl. 1992. The maritime cultural landscape. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, 1 (1992), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1992.tb00336.x arXiv:https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1992.tb00336.x